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GAME DESIGN RESEARCH

AN OVERVIEWAN OVERVIEW

PETRI LANKPETRI LANKOSKI AND JUSSI HOLOPOSKI AND JUSSI HOLOPAINENAINEN

Game design aims to solve a design problem of "how do we create this specific game?" The main goal

of this process is a game; new understanding about game development and game design is merely a

by-product of that process. In game design research the aim is to uncover new facts and insight about

game design, design processes, or games as designed objects; that is, to gain new knowledge and

understanding about game design. Game research , on the other hand, is an umbrella term for all kinds

of research studying games (as artifacts), play, or players (cf. Lankoski and Björk, 2015b)

Design research, or design studies as it is also called, has been gaining momentum since the beginning

of 20th century, although its history can be traced back millennia (e.g., Aristotle's Poetics, circa 335

BCE and Vitruvius' De architectura circa 15 BCE). While the history of games is long, little is known

about the design of early games. Some information about evolution of certain games exists (e.g.,

Parker, 2006). Elizabeth Magie's Landlord's game (1903) is one of the early examples where there is data

about its design, such as that the game is designed based on an economical theory by Henry George.

The first well-known publication about computer game design was in the 1980s when Chris

Crawford (1984) published his seminal The art of game design . However, Simulation & Gaming journal

has been publishing about using games in research and education from the early 1970s (for example,

Nagazawa, 1970). The history of business simulation games is even longer (cf. Faria et al., 2009).

Game developer magazine (1994–2013) published postmortems of game development, quality control,

design, game art and musics, and programming. Game development came into the spotlight in the

2000s when multiple books about game design were published (e.g., Salen and Zimmerman, 2003)

and Digital Game Research Association (DiGRA) conferences provided a venue for game research and

began publishing design research (e.g., Lankoski and Heliö, 2002; Martin et al., 2003; Björk, Lundgren

and Holopainen, 2003).

For the purpose of the following discussion, Nigel Cross' (1999) definition of design research as

"development, articulation and communication of design knowledge" (p.5) is used. However, one

needs to remember that a key aspect of research is that research is a systematic practice. Cross

argues further that the design knowledge resides in people, processes, and artifacts resulting in three

different domains of design knowledge: design epistemology (the study of designerly ways of knowing),

design praxiologypy (the study of practices and processes of design) and design phenomenology (the study

of the form and function of the resulting artifacts).

The studies in game design research can be positioned accordingly. The game design epistemology is

concerned with what kinds of knowledge game designers have and employ in their design practice.

Investigations of explicit and implicit conceptual design frameworks and studies of how designers use

examples from existing games to frame design situations are part of game design epistemology (cf.

Chiapello, this volume). The design practices and processes, both actual and prescribed, are the focus

of design praxiology. How designers work, what kinds of methods and design tools they use, and how

game design is situated in the larger game development are examples of these studies. The design

phenomenology has, perhaps, been the most prevalent form of game design research and covers many

issues in the more general game research field such as analyses and impact studies of games.

Another useful way to make sense of the complex field of design research is to categorize it according

to the goals and approaches used in the studies. Forlizzi, et al. (2009; cf. Frayling, 1993; Coulton

and Hook, this volume) propose three categories: research on (or about) design, research for design,

and research through design. Research on design aims to understand design as a specific human

activity, including aspects such as design cognition, the role of specific activities such as sketching

in design, and creativity (e.g., Holopainen, Nummenmaa and Kuittinen, 2010). The goals in research

for design are to develop theories and knowledge which can be applied in the practical design work.

Forlizzi, et al. (2009) list conceptual frameworks, guiding philosophies, and design implications as

examples of research for design (cf. Chiapello, this volume; Dormans and Holopainen, this volume;

Back and Waern, this volume). Research through design, on the other hand, is an approach to produce

different kinds of design knowledge, including conceptual frameworks and design theories. As the

name implies the outputs are developed through actively engaging in producing designed artifacts.

A persistent form of game design research is aiming to understand design practices or improve those

practices, in other words, research for design. Game design research, however, is not only about

improving existing design practices as is evident from the historical overview of game design research

below. What we provide in the following discussion is not a systematic review of history of game

design research, but rather an overview reflecting our histories as game design research practitioners.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL APPROACHES

Initial takes on game design research were typically informal or ad hoc. The driving force at the

beginning was the designers' need to better understand what they were doing and to learn from

their previous work. Data about development was typically not gathered systematically and

autobiographical design experiences were an important part of analytical reflections.

The roots of game design research are in informal1 inquiries where designers started to ask how

to design better games. Early examples of theorising about design include Jackson and Schuessler'

(1981) work on board game design in Game design: Volume 1: Theory & practice and Crawford's (1984)

description on development process along with design techniques and design norms in his The art of

computer game design. Notably, Schuessler (in Jackson and Schuessler, 1981) uses game theory in his

approach to board game design.

The discussion focussed on what is a good game and how to design those kinds of games. Design

approaches are driven by norms. The following quote is an example of norms and assumptions in

game design derived from an implicit understanding of what makes a good game:

Because game players become their characters, game writers should confine themselves to single-person,

limited point of view. This means that the player should never be shown or told anything that the character

has not experienced directly. (Laramée, 2002, p.266)

Norms and heuristics, as Niiniluoto (1993) points out, are essential for design work. The norms are (at

least to some degree) a matter of taste. Norms for a game appealing to children may be quite different

1. Informal is used to denote approaches where the presented results are not a result based on systematic investigation of a topic using a

method to study the topic.

2PETRI L ANKOSKI & JUSSI H OLOPAINEN

from the norms of a game appealing to adults. Changing the norms of a good game leads to a different

set of design recommendations. For example, Witcher 3: Wild hunt (CD Project RED, 2015) was a very

successful and popular game even though it breaks Laramée's aforementioned design principles when

the game switches between Geralt and Ciri. It is worth to emphasize that immersion as a design norm

is not wrong, but the norm tends to promote certain design directions and demote other types of

design solutions.

Designers and developers actively publish about different approaches to game development. Game

developer conference, Game developer magazine (1994–2013), and Gamasutra (1997–) magazine have

been prominent venues for sharing experiences of design processes (called Postmortems following

Crawford's, 1984, terminology) and advices for best practice. More practice informed design theory

and method approaches started to surface in the 2000s (e.g., Rouse, 2001; Schell, 2008). Some works

are creating connections to different areas of design: Sheldon (2004) draws from dramatic writing and

Totten (2014) from architecture.

Non-digital entertainment games have also been discussed by practitioners. For example, Knizia's

(2010) Dice games properly explained discusses mainly dice games from the player perspective (e.g.,

good strategies), but also covers design of dice games. There are vibrant hobby communities around

board and roleplaying games such as Boardgame geek (boardgamegeek.com), Board game designer forum

(www.bgdf.com), RPGNet (www.rpg.net), and the LARP focused Knutepunkt/Solmukohta2 . The design

oriented discussions within these communities are often based on the designers' own reflections on

their design work and sometimes lack the analytical rigour. There are, however, exceptions, especially

in the books published from Knutepunkt/Solmukohta conference series.

COMPARATIVE AND CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES

The next shift happened at 1990s when to focus moved from postmortems to developing approaches

to describe games. In these approaches playing games produces the data that is analysed (cf. Cross,

1999, design epistemology, praxiology, and phenomenology) to develop models, concepts, and

definitions of games. Researchers and practitioners also took up the quest of defining a language to

describe games. The lack of language to discuss and describe game design has been an issue for a

long time. Greg Costikyan (1994) tackles the issue that game designers do not have a language to

discuss and describe game design in the essay I have no words & I must design in the context of table-top

roleplaying games

In his essay, Costikyan (1994) discusses what a game is and what makes a good game based on the

criteria of his definition. His definition is meant to highlight the designable aspects and provide some

criteria to evaluate different design decisions against the criteria of a good game. This descriptive

approach along with earlier ones (Crawford, 1984, provides a definition and a taxonomy of games)

are based on the needs of game designers to understand what they are designing.

As noted above, game designers have been concerning themselves with the question what is game

and language to discuss game design. This form of game design research is closely connected, or

indistinguishable, from game research that is looking at the questions about what games are. Elliot

M. Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith's (1971) The study of games from 1971 is an early example where

(sport, gambling) games and children's play are regarded as artifacts, not merely as an abstract cultural

category.

2. Knutepunk/Solmukohta is a yearly conference for live-action role-players and designers.

GAME DESIGN R ESEARCH 3

Salen and Zimmerman (2003), in Rules of play, Hunicke, et al. (2004) in MDA , and Elias, et al. (2012),

in Characteristics of games, take a more theoretically driven approach when describing different kinds

of theories and their applications to game design. Notably, Elias, et al., are focusing on board and

card games in their work. Salen and Zimmerman look at games as information systems, cybernetic

systems, and so on whereas Elias, et al., draw much from game theory. Hunicke, et al. present a

formal analysis framework breaking games to mechanic, dynamic and aesthetic components. Salen

and Zimmerman, Hunicke, et al., and Elias, et al., also provide analyses of games and play behaviors in

order to provide tools to think about game design in more structured ways. In a similarly structured

manner, Klabbers (2008) presents principles of the design and use of games where he connects

simulation game design, a scientific tradition set-up by the Simulation & Gaming journal (1970–), to

the various other domains of game design.

Björk and Holopainen(Björk, Lundgren and Holopainen, 2003; Björk and Holopainen, 2005)

introduced their game design patterns approach for describing formal structures of games. They

based the pattern language on the architectural design patterns by Alexander et al. (1977). Lankoski

and Björk (2015a) draw on formal art analysis to provide concepts and a method to describe and

analyse games. Zagal's, et al. (2005) game ontology project aimed to provide tools for describing

and analysing games using Lakoff (1987) prototype theory as a premise to build their ontology. Aki

Järvinen (2008) and Joris Dormans (2012) present detailed theories on game systems and sketch

theories for the relation of game system and play experience in their doctoral theses.

Totten (in this volume) traces game design via looking at games, applying historical approach from

the architectural research. Bateman and Zagal (2017) track the evolution of game design features such

as inventory systems.

The above review of conceptual approaches reveal a range of different approaches for describing

games systems. The plurality of frameworks indicates that there is still little agreement on how to

conceptualize game systems.

RESEARCH THROUGH DESIGN

Research through design has been an eminent approach in game design research beginning from

the early days of Simulation & Gaming journal through Thomas Malone's (1981; 1982) seminal work

in early 1980s and Brenda Laurel's (1986) influential doctoral dissertation Toward the design of a

computer-based interactive fantasy system, although only a few of the more recent studies have identified

themselves as such. In a typical research through design project the researchers design and usually

implement a game or games in order to pursue a further research aim, such as developing guiding

principles and conceptual frameworks (Guardiola and Natkin, this volume; Back and Waern, this

volume), validating a certain design approach in serious games studies (Quinten, et al., this volume), or

understanding game design as an activity (Holopainen, et al., 2010). Coulton and Hook (this volume)

provide a more thorough game design practice oriented discussion, while the rest of this section

highlights some of the prominent examples of research through game design.

The 1990s and early 2000s saw a rise in both academic and industry based research teams engaging

in research through game design. Many of these initiatives explored the potential of (then) upcoming

technologies for game development. For example, Interactive Institute's PLAY Studio (1999–2004) in

Gothenburg, Sweden, worked on location-aware (Falk, et al., 2001) and ubiquitous computing games

(Björk, et al., 2002) while Mixed reality lab at University of Nottingham together the artist group

4PETRI L ANKOSKI & JUSSI H OLOPAINEN

Blast Theory focused on exploring mixed reality with games such as Desert rain (1999) and Can you

see me now? (2001) (see Benford et al., 2002). Finland around the same time was active in shaping the

international game research community. Game research lab at University of Tampere used design-

based approach in multiple projects and developed games such as The footprints of power in 2002

(cf. Ekman and Lankoski, 2004) to explore games and storytelling in interactive television and The

songs of north in 2003–2004 (cf. Lankoski, et al., 2004) to understand the potential of location-aware

mobile games. Nokia Research Center, also in Tampere, had several research through game design

projects from 1999 onwards, often collaborating with academic research teams (e.g., Falk, et al., 2001;

Suomela, et al., 2004; Holopainen, Nummenmaa and Kuittinen, 2010; Koivisto and Eladhari, 2006).

Lankoski, et al. in Aalto University developed Lies and Seductions (Lankoski, et al., 2009) in order

to explore character-driven game design methodology and further develop it. In addition the game

aimed to study possibilities of social conflict -based gameplay (cf. Lankoski, 2010).

In 2004, the Integrated project on pervasive games (IPeRG), collected researchers from University

of Nottingham's Mixed reality lab, University of Tampere's Game research lab, Interactive Institute's

Play studio (later Game studio), and Nokia Research Center's Game design team. The backbone of

the project was formed by the design and development of game showcases: for example, Epidemic

menace (cf. Lindt, et al., 2007) and Day of figurines (cf. Flintham et al., 2007). The showcases were used

to advance the understanding of pervasive game design and development and the results, including

design guidelines and frameworks, are collected in Montola, et al. (2007).

Similar North-American approaches include, for example, Regan Mandryk's and Kori Inkpen's (2001)

work on computer supported cooperative play and Carnegie Mellon's Oz-project on interactive

drama (Bates, 1992). Michael Mateas translated his expertise on believable characters built in Oz-

project to games with Façade (cf. Mateas and Stern, 2003). The trend has since grown stronger with

several research teams and centers engaging in research through design.

Academic conferences, such as ISAGA, SIGGRAPH and SIGCHI, had already published research

through game design studies for a long time but several new academic venues emerged in the early

2000s. The first international conference on entertainment computing (ICEC) was held in 2001

followed by the first Advances in computer entertainment technology (ACE) conference in 2004. In

addition to ICEC and ACE, newer conferences such as CHI PLAY (from 2014) and Foundations of

Digital Games (from 2009) contain a substantial amount of research through design studies, though

the authors may not explicitly identify their work as such.

Designing games for a purpose of gaining new knowledge, in other words research through game

design, has been an integral, although often implicit, part of game research. Discussing and criticizing

research through design as an approach has made researchers more aware of their methodology in

fields such as HCI (Zimmerman, Stolterman and Forlizzi, 2010; cf. Gaver, 2012). Coulton and Hook

(in this volume) and Back and Waern (in this volume) discuss challenges in using research through

game design later in this book.

DESIGN AND EVALUATION METHODS RESEARCH

Design methods have been an integral part of general design research (Vries, Cross and Grant, 1993).

Game designers have been working on design and evaluation methods for a long time starting with

autobiographical works that provide important insights for understanding game design practices

within game industry. There are numerous textbooks on game design advocating different methods

GAME DESIGN R ESEARCH 5

and techniques and there is a growing body of systematic work on game design methodology (cf.,

Dormans and Holopainen, this volume). Moreover, understanding norms and assumptions behind

different methods and approached is one emerging line of study (see, for example, Marcotte and

Khaled, this volume).

Microsoft has been active in game design and evaluation methods from early 2000. For example,

Pagulayan, et al., (2003) present user-centric design approach for games and Lazarre and Keeker

(2004) described an approach for evaluating games.

Fullerton, Swain and Hoffman (2004) in their Game design workshop textbook, outline design

methodology based on prototyping, iteration, and playtesting. Sweetser and Wyeth (2005) provide

heuristic model based on Csikszentmihalyi's (1990) flow theory for evaluating game enjoyment.

Dorman's (2012, 2017) Machinations design approach and tool allows simulation based fine-tuning

of game systems. The design of serious games has been a hot topic and there are multiple design

frameworks for them (e.g., Quinten, Malliet and Coninx, in this volume; Gunter, Kenny and Vick,

2006; Yusoff, et al., 2009; Annetta, 2010).

In addition for general game design approaches, there are also more specific methods for designing,

for example, character-based games, pervasive games and education games. Lankoski (2010; cf.

Lankoski, Heliö and Ekman, 2003) suggest a character-driven game design approach that draws from

Egri's (1960) method for theatre script-writing3 and Isbister (2006) focuses on design of believable

game characters based on psychological theories.

All heuristic evaluation methods and many design methods are normative: they are based on a

specific norm of a good game or playing experience. These approaches promote norms such as

immersion or believable game characters. Methods focusing on the design or development process

do not necessarily take similar normative stances, as their focus is on the process, not in the artifacts

produced. Notably, Jones (1981), writing on design methods in general, argues that changing a design

method can give a new perspective to a design problem and thereby help solve it. Jones' argument

applies to game design methods: they provide a perspective intended to help to solve a design

problem.

Nacke and Lindley (2008) show an approach to compare player experiences using psychophysiology

and psychometrics, Pedersen, et al. (2009) describe a study about modeling play experience in relation

to design features and Mourato and Santos (2010) do statistical modelling on the difficulty of platform

games using play data. Cowley, et al. (2014) present an empirical study where they look at play

patterns based on play data and connect that data to design patterns analysis of the game, aiming to

bridge the gap between analytical design studies and empirical player studies.

Evaluation methods also have application in the research for design area. Weber, et al. (2011)

exemplifies a focused look at the relationship between retention of players and game design choices.

El-Nasr, Drachen and Canossa's (2013) provide an extensive look at using game analytics to support

game design.

3. Egri's approach has been utilized, at least, in more autobiographical works of Sheldon (2004) and Krawczyk and Novak (2006).

6PETRI L ANKOSKI & JUSSI H OLOPAINEN

STUDIO AND DEVELOPERS AT WORK STUDIES

The main feature of the empirical phase is that the data of player behaviour or development practices

is gathered using various methods such as interviews, observations and questionnaires; the data is

not generated by researchers playing games by themselves or by designers reflecting their on own

development experiences. An early example of an interview-based study of hobby game production is

Laukkanen's (2005) study on game modding and modders.

From the late 2000s onward multiple researchers have been examining projects within commercial

game companies. Hagen (Hagen, 2009; 2011) interviewed designers and analysed material from

various early design phase in order to understand the ideation process at the early stage of game

development. Based on a year of ethnographic work, Malaby (2009) presents a study about how Linden

Lab approaches their development work on Second Life (2003–). Peltoniemi (2009) and Kultima (2010)

look at the development cultures within game companies. O'Donnell (2014) has been conducting

ethnographic studies about design practices in studios covering both the pre-production phase and

the production phase and extending his analysis to how market forces shape design and development

work. Koleva, et al. (2015) provides another study looking at actual development processes using

ethnomethodology and a questionnaire.

Developers have been interviewed in multiple studies to develop understanding various aspects of

development process. Kultima has studied innovation in companies (Kultima, 2010) and the role

of iteration in game development (Kultima, 2015) by interviewing developers. Tschang (2007) has

looked at how developers balance between creativity and different types of constraints (such as

resources, increasing complexity, and coherence within a game) in game development. Sandovar (in

this volume) and Marcotte and Khaled (in this volume) provide two additional perspectives to study

indie developers' practices.

Game jams have been providing an alternative channel for looking at development processes. For

example, Zook and Riedl (2013) studied conceptualisation and Kultima, Alha, and Nummenmaa

(2016) analyzed the role of constraints in development processes in game jams.

WHERE ARE WE NOW; WHAT NEXT

Our historical look at game design research divides work into the headings of: conceptual approaches;

research through design; design and evaluation methods; and studies of studios and developers at

work. Many research cases focus on these aspects but extend into other directions as well. However,

our review of game design research builds on our own histories as researchers. Systematic review

of the area would be needed for building better understanding what is happening in the field.

Nevertheless, we have shown that game design research consists of various different approaches with

the common aim of gaining insight by looking as games as design processes or systems, including how

the systems shape play and experience. This means that a large body of game research is not game

design research: for example, MMO studies that look at play in MMOs, but do not consider how game

systems modulate and regulate play. There the focus is understanding play as play without intention

to gain knowledge on (game) design of MMOs.

Conceptual approaches have centered around the definition of a game (or gameplay) relate to

philosophy of design (cf. Galle, 2002) and analytical philosophy. Tavinor (2009) illustrates in The

art of videogames how game studies in general would benefit from better philosophical rigour when

developing definitions (pp.15–33). His argument is relevant also to game design research. The areas

GAME DESIGN R ESEARCH 7

of philosophy of science in game design research and the ethics of game design are rarely studied.

Kultima (in this volume) reflects on the ontology of game design research and Chiapello (in this

volume) discusses the epistemology of game design research. Sicart (2009, pp.207–221) in his The

ethics of computer games looks at the ethics of game design as a part of his project to understand ethics

of games and play in a more general sense. We hope to see more research in the future into the area of

philosophy of design.

Many modern 3D games model urban and rural spaces. Totten (in this volume) shows how a historical

research approach (cf. Wang and Groat, 2013) drawn from architecture can used in game design

research. Architectural research and research in urban design has a long tradition (e.g., the Journal

of Urban Planning has been running from 1996 and Architectural Research Quarterly from 1995) in

topics relating to game spaces. While the research and research approaches in architecture and urban

planning might not be directly applicable to research of game spaces and the use of game spaces, game

design research still can learn from the approaches used in those areas.

As we have illustrated above game design research provides theories4that are fundamentally

normative; these theories make claims about the qualities of good games and how to design good

games. However, scientific design theories are not purely normative, but rather build on descriptive

theories of games, the relation between play and game, or play experience. (cf. Wang and Groat, 2013,

pp.109–122; Niiniluoto, 1993; Chiapello, this volume.) The nature, role and construction of these

game design theories remains largely unexplored (Dormans and Holopainen, this volume). Friedman

(2003) and Redström (2017), for example, have argued that constructing or making design theories is

essential for advancing the knowledge in the field, ultimately leading to better practices and products.

We hope that this book contributes to the exploration and articulation of how and why to make game

design theories.

Above we have outlined and categorized types of game design research. We presented

autobiographical approaches, comparative and conceptual approaches, research through design,

design and evaluation methods research, and studio and developers at work studies. Each of these

have a different focus on what kind of knowledge the researchers are interested in. Moreover,

different research types complement each other providing understanding relating game design, its

products and processes. The following chapters continue in describing game design research in more

detail from various point of views.

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... Likewise, the freely online-available Game Design Research (Lankoski & Holopainen, 2017) connects other lines of studies to design research, a task that has until now has not really been accomplished in a manner that would provide industry ...

J. T. Harviainen

This editorial presents some recent contributions in the field of game-related research, as well as discusses the contents of the issue. The field is currently engaging in much-awaited cross-pollination between different groups and traditions of game scholars, and the new works published both here and in books reflect this positive trend.

In this paper, we present the findings of an interview study of game developers participating to a constrained game development event, Survival Mode 2016 game jam. Survival Mode 2016 was organized in Finnish Lapland as the northernmost jamming site of Global Game Jam (GGJ) 2016. The event differed from the typical Global Game Jam site in Finland in terms of participants being mostly experienced game developers and that there were additional design constraints for their projects. In addition to the global theme, the participants of the Survival Mode 2016 had an extra thematic constraint and the setting of the event itself created such constraints as limited Internet connectivity and power supply. The interviewees reflected on their projects and experiences with design constraints providing interesting insight to the role of design constraints in game development and the difference between a jam setting and commercial game creation projects. These observations can be utilized in further studies of game design constraints as well as in the design of different game jam events.

This paper addresses a paucity in the literature of studies of actual game development. It presents the initial findings from a questionnaire addressed to game development companies together with an ethnographic case study that drills into how resources are actually used and how the workflow and coordination are actually accomplished. It finds a number of challenges that can be seen to confront the development of new game authoring tools, centred around the intensely co-present character of design-related interaction and collaboration in this domain. These findings are used to articulate a range of potential requirements.

Kultima Annakaisa

In this article, the findings of an interview study on game developers' perspectives on iteration is presented. A two-part interview study conducted in 2010 and 2013-2014 suggests that from the perspective of game developers, iteration is an essential, natural and important part of the game development – if not even a trivial part of the process. However, there is much to explore on the differences in practice and opinions revealing distinctive details in iterative processes potentially leading towards more elaborate design philosophies and methods on game development.

T.M. Malaby

The past decade has seen phenomenal growth in the development and use of virtual worlds. In one of the most notable, Second Life, millions of people have created online avatars in order to play games, take classes, socialize, and conduct business transactions. Second Life offers a gathering point and the tools for people to create a new world online. Too often neglected in popular and scholarly accounts of such groundbreaking new environments is the simple truth that, of necessity, such virtual worlds emerge from physical workplaces marked by negotiation, creation, and constant change. Thomas Malaby spent a year at Linden Lab, the real-world home of Second Life, observing those who develop and profit from the sprawling, self-generating system they have created. Some of the challenges created by Second Life for its developers were of a very traditional nature, such as how to cope with a business that is growing more quickly than existing staff can handle. Others are seemingly new: How, for instance, does one regulate something that is supposed to run on its own? Is it possible simply to create a space for people to use and then not govern its use? Can one apply these same free-range/free-market principles to the office environment in which the game is produced? "Lindens"-as the Linden Lab employees call themselves-found that their efforts to prompt user behavior of one sort or another were fraught with complexities, as a number of ongoing processes collided with their own interventions. In Making Virtual Worlds, Malaby thoughtfully describes the world of Linden Lab and the challenges faced while he was conducting his in-depth ethnographic research there. He shows how the workers of a very young but quickly growing company were themselves caught up in ideas about technology, games, and organizations, and struggled to manage not only their virtual world but also themselves in a nonhierarchical fashion. In exploring the practices the Lindens employed, he questions what was at stake in their virtual world, what a game really is (and how people participate), and the role of the unexpected in a product like Second Life and an organization like Linden Lab.

C.W. Totten

Explore Level Design through the Lens of Architectural and Spatial Experience Theory Written by a game developer and professor trained in architecture, An Architectural Approach to Level Design is one of the first books to integrate architectural and spatial design theory with the field of level design. It explores the principles of level design through the context and history of architecture, providing information useful to both academics and game development professionals. Understand Spatial Design Principles for Game Levels in 2D, 3D, and Multiplayer Applications The book presents architectural techniques and theories for level designers to use in their own work. The author connects architecture and level design in different ways that address the practical elements of how designers construct space and the experiential elements of how and why humans interact with this space. Throughout the text, readers learn skills for spatial layout, evoking emotion through gamespaces, and creating better levels through architectural theory. Create Meaningful User Experiences in Your Games Bringing together topics in game design and architecture, this book helps designers create better spaces for their games. Software independent, the book discusses tools and techniques that designers can use in crafting their interactive worlds.

A considerable number of serious games have been developed over the last ten years, with varying degrees of success. Due to a lack of clear standards and guidelines for game developers, it is difficult to justify claims that a specific game meets the learner's requirements and/or expectations. This paper defines a conceptual model for serious games that will contribute to their design and the measurement of achievement in meeting their learning outcomes.